Advances in pediatric diagnosis and treatment have improved acute-stage survival. However, inadequate health management during recovery has become a major factor affecting children's long-term outcomes. China currently lacks systematic standards for post-illness health management in children, resulting in fragmented post-discharge rehabilitation guidance and disease monitoring. Addressing respiratory, neurological, nutritional, and other common pediatric disorders, this consensus proposes a continuous health management model from hospital to home. It systematically outlines pathways for clinical assessment, functional rehabilitation, nutritional support, and psychological and behavioral interventions during recovery, with particular emphasis on oral-motor training, maintenance of respiratory function, and psychosocial support in promoting children's growth and development. This consensus aims to standardize clinical care pathways, reduce disease recurrence and disability, and provide pediatricians with evidence-based guidance on follow-up and rehabilitation, thereby promoting comprehensive physical and psychological recovery in children.

Cardiovascular disease develops across the life course. Growing evidence from long-term cohort studies indicates that overweight and obesity, elevated blood pressure, dyslipidemia, abnormal glucose metabolism, tobacco exposure, physical inactivity, and unhealthy dietary patterns during childhood and adolescence may persist or track into adulthood and are associated with subclinical atherosclerosis, arterial stiffness, cardiac and renal target-organ damage, and clinical cardiovascular events. The clustering of multiple risk factors in childhood and the resulting cumulative burden over time may better characterize later cardiovascular risk than abnormalities in any single risk factor. Importantly, improvements in weight status, blood pressure, and lipid profiles by adulthood are associated with substantially lower long-term risk, highlighting childhood as a critical window for prevention. Drawing on evidence from major international cardiovascular cohorts beginning in childhood and the Hanzhong Adolescent Hypertension Cohort, this article systematically reviews the associations between major childhood cardiovascular risk factors and cardiovascular disease risk in adulthood and offers recommendations for prevention and control, emphasizing comprehensive risk screening, coordinated family-school-community interventions, continuous follow-up, and cardiovascular health management across the life course.

With socioeconomic development and changes in disease patterns, chronic noncommunicable diseases, including obesity, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, diabetes, chronic respiratory diseases, and certain cancers, have become major public health threats to the population in China. Traditional strategies for chronic disease prevention and control have primarily focused on behavioral interventions and risk-factor management during adulthood. However, growing evidence indicates that the origins of chronic diseases can be traced back to early life and even the fetal period. It further proposes establishing a full-chain early prevention strategy system covering the period from pregnancy, infancy, and early childhood, so as to promote the transition of child health care in China toward a health-promotion-centered model.

Objective To examine the longitudinal associations of urinary phthalate metabolite exposure with incident overweight/obesity, elevated blood pressure, and their comorbidity among school-aged children. Methods This study used the phthalate repeated-measurement subcohort of the Xiamen Pubertal Development Cohort. In 2018, 823 children had valid data; 816 contributed at least one adjacent follow-up interval, yielding 1 542 intervals. Seven urinary phthalate metabolites were measured, and three molar-sum indices were calculated (∑LMWP, ∑DEHP, and ∑PAEs). All exposure measures were adjusted for expected creatinine, natural-log-transformed, and standardised to the interquartile range (IQR). Generalized estimating equation logistic models assessed associations between exposure at the previous wave and subsequent incident outcomes, adjusting for follow-up interval and demographic, family, and lifestyle factors. Sensitivity analyses additionally adjusted for pubertal development and cardiometabolic status at the previous wave. Results A total of 56 incident overweight/obesity events, 238 elevated blood pressure events and 90 incident comorbidity events occurred. In fully adjusted models, each IQR increase in MEHHP and ∑DEHP was associated with incident comorbidity [OR=1.307 (95% CI: 1.018-1.679), P=0.036; OR=1.340 (95% CI: 1.013-1.772), P=0.040]; both q values were 0.202. No stable associations were observed for incident overweight/obesity or elevated blood pressure alone. No statistically significant interactions were observed between exposure and follow-up interval or sex. In sensitivity analyses,the effect estimates for MEHHP and ∑DEHP remained above 1.0 but were not statistically significant. Conclusion Exposure to DEHP-related phthalate metabolites may be positively associated with incident comorbidity of overweight/obesity and elevated blood pressure, and further confirmation is warranted.

Objective To examine the effects of maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI), gestational weight gain (GWG), and their joint associations on trajectories of infant weight, length, weight-for-length Z score (WLZ), and BMI-for-age Z score (BAZ) from birth to 12 months among women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), so as to provide evidence for early growth-monitoring strategies for high-risk infants. Methods This prospective cohort study recruited women in early pregnancy from Yangzhou Maternal and Child Health Care Hospital between December 2023 and October 2024. Maternal pregnancy-related data and neonatal birth data were collected. Infant anthropometric measurements were obtained at 42 days and at 3, 6, 8, and 12 months of age. Locally weighted scatterplot smoothing (LOWESS) was used to plot smoothed growth trajectories across groups. Generalized estimating equations (GEEs) were used to assess the effects of prepregnancy BMI, GWG, and their combined categories on infant growth trajectories from 0 to 12 months. Multivariable logistic regression was used to evaluate the association between combined prepregnancy BMI-GWG categories and overweight/obesity at 12 months. Results Compared with infants born to mothers with non-overweight/obesity before pregnancy and adequate GWG, infants born to mothers with prepregnancy overweight/obesity and excessive GWG showed more rapid increases in weight (β=0.263, 95%CI: 0.116-0.411),head circumference (β=0.366, 95%CI:0.122 -0.609),WLZ (β=0.349, 95%CI: 0.156-0.543), BMI (β=0.629, 95%CI: 0.354-0.903), and BAZ (β=0.432, 95%CI: 0.247-0.616) (P<0.05). At 12 months, the risk of overweight/obesity was 2.742 times higher in these infants than in the reference group (95%CI: 1.015-7.048, P<0.05). Conclusions Among mothers with GDM, pre-pregnancy overweight/obesity combined with excessive GWG is associated with more rapid increases in offspring weight, head circumference, WLZ, BMI and BAZ during the first 12 months of life, as well as a higher risk of overweight/obesity at 12 months. Optimizing pre-pregnancy BMI and GWG may help reduce the risk of early-life overweight/obesity among offspring of women with GDM.

Objective To characterize the age-specific distribution and developmental pattern of optokinetic nystagmus (OKN)-based visual acuity in children aged 18-72 months using multicenter data. Methods This multicenter cross-sectional study recruited 3 118 children aged 18-72 months from eight participating centers between 2024 and 2025, including 50.8% boys and 49.2% girls. Only children without identified amblyopia risk factors were included. All participants underwent comprehensive ophthalmic examinations, including automated OKN-based visual-acuity testing. Children were stratified into 10 age groups at 6-month intervals. Interocular differences in OKN-based visual acuity were assessed using the paired Wilcoxon signed-rank test, and monotonic age trends were evaluated using Spearman rank correlation. Results OKN-based visual acuity increased significantly with age (Spearman's ρ=0.888, P<0.001). The 5th and 50th percentile values at 18 months were 4.3 and 4.4, respectively, and increased to 4.6 and 4.9 at 72 months. Piecewise linear regression identified an age-related change point at 36 months. The slope was 0.110 per 6 months before the change point and approximately 0.015 per 6 months thereafter. The piecewise model provided a significantly better fit than the single linear model (ΔAIC=514.0, F=560.6, P<2.2×10^-16). Conclusions OKN-based visual acuity exhibited a two-phase age-related pattern. Values increase rapidly between 18 and 36 months—by approximately one visual-acuity line per 6-month increase in age—and then showed a slower increase or approaches a plateau. These findings provide an empirical basis for establishing age-specific reference values and interpreting OKN-based visual acuity in children aged 18-72 months.

Objective To examine the associations of physical activity levels with total-body bone mineral content (BMC) and bone mineral density (BMD) among children aged 6-9 years. Methods This cross-sectional study included 452 children aged 6-9 years from Guangzhou, China. Total-body BMC and BMD were measured using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Physical activity was estimated from parent-assisted 24-hour activity records completed on three consecutive days and expressed as total daily energy expenditure (MET·h/day) and time spent at different intensity levels. Restricted cubic spline models and analysis of covariance were used to evaluate the associations after adjustment for potential confounders. Results The mean age was (8.01±0.93) years. Higher total daily energy expenditure and longer time spent in vigorous physical activity were positively associated with total-body BMC and BMD (P_{for trend}<0.01). Compared with the lowest tertile (T1), the highest tertile (T3) of total daily energy expenditure had 3.39% higher BMC and 2.20% higher BMD (P＜0.05); the corresponding differences for vigorous physical activity were 3.33% and 1.94% (P＜0.05), respectively. Conclusion Higher total daily energy expenditure and more time spent in vigorous physical activity are associated with higher total-body BMC and BMD among children aged 6-9 years.

Objective To evaluate changes in nutrition knowledge and dietary behaviors among preschool children and their parents before and after a multicomponent digital food education intervention,so as to provide a scientific basis for promoting food education curricula. Methods A one-group pre-post study was conducted among children aged 3-<6 years from three kindergartens in urban Shunyi District, Beijing. The 3-month intervention comprised one onsite session per month and supporting digital modules. Changes in nutrition knowledge and dietary behavior among children and their parents before and after the intervention were assessed through questionnaire surveys. Results A total of 415 and 298 valid questionnaires were collected at baseline and post-intervention, respectively. After the intervention, parental awareness of the recommended daily variety of foods increased from 32.29% to 39.60% (RD=7.31%, P=0.044), and awareness of the Chinese Food Guide Pagoda increased from 57.83% to 68.46% (RD=10.63%, P=0.004). The proportion of checking nutrition labels before food purchases increased from 56.52% to 68.47% (RD=11.95%, P=0.001). Children showed significant post-intervention improvements in basic nutrition knowledge, healthy dietary behaviors and lifestyle, and nutritional functions of foods(P＜0.05). Daily intake rates of fresh vegetables and fruits significantly increased by 8.02%, and grains, tubers, and legumes increased by 6.79%(P<0.05). Conclusions The multicomponent digital food education interventions effectively improve nutrition knowledge and dietary behaviors among preschool children. Randomized controlled trials with larger sample sizes and longer intervention periods are warranted to further evaluate its effectiveness.

Objective To investigate changes in gait spatiotemporal and kinematic parameters, plantar biomechanics, and lower-extremity electromyographic activity in children with flexible flatfoot, and to analyze potential compensatory manifestations associated with abnormal arch structure, so as to provide evidence for rehabilitation assessment and intervention. Methods From February 2024 to June 2025, 30 children with flexible flatfoot were recruited as observation group from the Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, meanwhile 30 children with normal feet matched by age and gender were selected as control group. A three-dimensional gait motion-capture and training system, a plantar-pressure testing system, and surface electromyography were used to compare gait spatiotemporal parameters, lower-extremity kinematic parameters, plantar biomechanical parameters, and lower-extremity muscle activity between the two groups. Results Compared with the control group, the observation group had a shorter stride length and lower gait speed (t=-2.740,-2.347, P<0.05), a smaller maximum ankle dorsiflexion angle (Z=-2.973,P<0.01), and maximum plantarflexion angle (t=-3.631, P<0.01); and a larger maximum knee-flexion angle (t=3.472,P<0.01). The medial and forefoot load ratios were higher (t=6.155, 2.552, P<0.05), whereas the lateral displacement of the center of pressure was lower (t=-2.469, P<0.05). The root mean square (RMS) values of the tibialis anterior and gastrocnemius muscles were also significantly higher (Z=5.025,4.582,P<0.01). Conclusions Children with flexible flatfoot exhibit abnormal arch structure, altered gait patterns, and compensatory activation of lower-extremity muscles, which may increase the long-term risk of sports injuries. Early biomechanical assessment and intervention should therefore be considered.

Objective To compare static plantar pressure distributions among patients with different subtypes of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) and healthy adolescents, and to investigate the correlations of plantar pressure parameters with coronal radiographic parameters, height, and weight in AIS subtypes exhibiting abnormal plantar pressure distributions. Methods This cross-sectional study included 157 participants aged 10-16 years who were treated or assessed at the Department of Rehabilitation, Changzhou Children's Hospital Affiliated with Nantong University, between January 2024 and July 2025. The participants comprised 32 healthy controls and 125 patients with AIS, including 28 with thoracic curves, 33 with lumbar curves, 32 with thoracolumbar curves, and 32 with S-shaped thoracolumbar curves. Static plantar pressure was measured using a FeetMapping platform system. Data with non-normal distributions or unequal variances were rank-transformed, followed by analysis of covariance adjusted for sex to compare differences among the groups. Correlations of plantar pressure parameters with radiographic parameters, height, and weight were analyzed in AIS subtypes exhibiting abnormal plantar pressure distributions. Results After adjustment for sex, significant differences among the five groups were observed in the left arch index (F=2.970), left plantar pressure percentage (F=5.659), and right plantar pressure percentage (F=6.497) (P<0.05). Pairwise comparisons showed that the left arch index differed between the lumbar curve and thoracolumbar curve groups (P<0.05). Bilateral plantar pressure percentages differed between the healthy control group and both the lumbar curve and S-shaped thoracolumbar curve groups (P<0.05). In the S-shaped thoracolumbar curve group, the left plantar pressure percentage was positively correlated with the Cobb angle (r=0.356, P=0.045) and C7 lateral offset (r=0.371, P=0.037), and negatively correlated with pelvic obliquity (r=-0.364, P=0.041) and height (r=-0.555, P=0.001). No significant correlations were observed in the lumbar curve group (P>0.05). Conclusions Static plantar pressure distributions differ across AIS subtypes. In patients with S-shaped thoracolumbar curves, plantar pressure distribution is closely associated with coronal imbalance and height, which may provide reference for clinical assessment and intervention.

Objective To compare growth trajectories from birth to 24 months among different subtypes of term small-for-gestational-age infants, in order to provide a scientific basis for personalized growth management in community. Methods In this retrospective longitudinal study, 241 term SGA infants born between March 2022 and August 2023 and followed at the Shiqiao Community Health Service Center were classified as SGA1[birth weight <10th percentile (P₁₀) only, n=142], SGA2 (birth length <P₁₀ only, n=50), or SGA3 (both birth weight and length <P₁₀, n=49). A total of 482 appropriate-for-gestational-age (AGA) infants were matched at a 1∶2 ratio. Weight-for-age Z score (WAZ) and length-for-age Z score (HAZ) were analyzed using linear mixed-effects models to compare the growth trajectories. Results At birth, all SGA subgroups had lower WAZ and HAZ than the AGA group (F=238.660, 244.809, P<0.001). Positive subgroup-by-time and negative subgroup-by-time-squared interactions indicated that the gaps narrowed early after birth but SGA infants showed a slower decline in growth trajectory. Catch-up was most obvious in SGA2: WAZ did not differ significantly from AGA from 3 months onward; HAZ did not differ at 12 or 18 months old but was lower again at 24 months old (t=3.079, P=0.011). At 24 months, WAZ and HAZ remained lower in SGA1 and SGA3 (P<0.001), whereas WAZ in SGA2 did not differ from AGA (P＞0.05). Conclusions Term SGA infants generally show early catch-up growth, but trajectories differ across different subgroups and not all growth indicators reach AGA levels by 24 months old. Stratified growth monitoring should consider both the affected anthropometric dimension and the longitudinal trajectory.

Objective To identify latent profiles of the family food environment among school-aged children, and to examine their associations with children's weight status, in order to provide evidence for targeted family-based interventions. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted between August 2022 and February 2023. School-aged children and their primary caregivers were recruited from two primary schools in Nanjing using multistage cluster sampling. Data were collected using a general information questionnaire, the Family Food Environment Questionnaire, the Child Feeding Questionnaire, and the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire for Children. Latent profile analysis was performed to identify distinct profiles of the family food environment. Multinomial logistic regression was used to examine the associations between family food environment profiles and children's weight status. Results A total of 1 015 valid questionnaires were included, with a valid response rate of 88.11%. Four family food environment profiles were identified: rule-guided (30.15%), coercion-and-concern (9.16%), abundance-and-permissiveness (37.34%), and scarcity-and-control (23.35%). After adjustment for potential confounders, including the children's age and sex and parental educational attainment, and using normal weight as the outcome reference and the scarcity-and-control profile as the exposure reference, the rule-guided and coercion-and-concern profiles were negatively associated with overweight (OR=0.383,0.418) and obesity (OR=0.198, 0.147, P<0.001). No statistically significant associations were observed between the abundance-and-permissiveness profile and either overweight or obesity (P>0.05). Conclusions The associations between the family food environment and weight status vary across different family food environment profiles among school-aged children. Family-based interventions for childhood obesity should adopt tailored strategies according to specific family food environment profiles.

Objective To examine the interaction between sex and daily physical exercise duration in relation to sleep quality among adolescents, so as to provide evidence for developing tailored sleep intervention strategies. Methods This cross-sectional study used cluster sampling to recruit adolescents aged 12-17 years from 13 middle schools in Shiyan, Hubei Province in October 2023. Data were collected through questionnaires and physical examinations. A total of 10 607 participants were included. Linear mixed-effects models with school included as a random effect were used to analyze the associations of sex, daily physical exercise duration, and their interaction with Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) scores. Results The interaction between sex and daily physical exercise duration was statistically significant (F=3.239, P=0.039). Among boys, compared with those exercising for 30 to <60 min/d, those exercising for <30 min/d had higher PSQI scores (β =0.27, 95%CI: 0.13 to 0.41), whereas those exercising for ≥60 min/d had lower PSQI scores (β=-0.25, 95%CI: -0.42 to -0.07). Among girls, neither the <30 min/day group nor the ≥60 min/d group differed significantly from the 30 to <60 min/d group in PSQI score (P>0.05). Exercise-duration-stratified analyses showed that boys had lower PSQI scores than girls in both the 30 to <60 min/d and ≥60 min/d groups (β=-0.32,-0.36, P<0.01), whereas no significant sex difference was found in the <30 min/d group (P>0.05). Conclusions Sex and daily physical exercise duration interact in relation to sleep quality among adolescents, with the association between exercise duration and sleep quality observed primarily among boys. Adolescent sleep-health promotion strategies should consider both sex characteristics and physical exercise levels when developing tailored interventions.

The Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy (ASCIA) released the 2026 Guideline: Infant Feeding and Food Allergy Prevention, providing a significant update to the 2016 version. Developed using the AGREE Ⅱ framework, AMSTAR 2 tool, and the GRADE system, the guideline presents 16 recommendations, comprising eight evidence-based and eight consensus-based statements derived via the Delphi method. Key updates include: 1) recommending the introduction of complementary foods when the infant is developmentally ready (approximately at 6 months, but not before 4 months); 2) introducing hard-boiled eggs and suitable forms of peanuts as soon as possible; 3) introducing management protocols for perioral rashes to prevent unnecessary food avoidance; 4) emphasizing the avoidance of occasional cow's milk formula supplementation during the first week of life unless there is a clear medical indication. This paper systematically interprets the core recommendations of this guideline, compares its similarities and differences with the 2016 edition and Chinese evidence-based guideline for childhood food allergy (2022). Furthermore, it provides localized clinical strategies for the Chinese context, focusing on peanut introduction, formula management for cesarean-born infants, and the differential diagnosis of perioral rashes, aiming to offer evidence-based practical guidance for pediatricians.

Objective To explore the associations between 24-hour movement behaviors and obesity-related indicators in primary and middle school students using optimal time zone analysis, so as to propose optimal time allocation combinations for pediatric obesity prevention. Methods A stratified random sampling method was used to recruit 274 children and adolescents (143 boys and 131 girls) in Zhengzhou from April to May 2024. Obesity indicators were measured., including body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), waist-to-height ratio (WHtR), body fat percentage (BFP), fat mass index (FMI), and visceral fat tissue (VFA) area. Triaxial accelerometers were utilized to objectively measure 24-hour movement behaviors, including moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), light physical activity (LPA), and sedentary behavior. Sleep duration was collected via questionnaires. Optimal time zone analysis was applied to determine the optimal durations and ranges of these behaviors. Results The 24-hour movement behaviors of primary school students were significantly associated with BMI (F=12.45), WHR (F=13.59) and VFA (F=9.62) (P＜0.05). For middle school students, significant associations were observed between 24-hour movement behaviors and BMI (F=13.17), WHR (F=13.61), WHtR (F=9.94), BFP (F=6.44), and VFA (F=12.85) (P＜0.05). Accordingly, the estimated optimal daily allocations were 70 min (40-80 min) for MVPA, 255 min (240-290 min) for LPA, 580 min (440-610 min) for sedentary behavior, and 535 min (475-650 min) for sleep among primary school students. Among middle school students, the corresponding allocations were 76 min (45-90 min) for MVPA, 262 min (255-300 min) for LPA, 604 min (490-640 min) for sedentary behavior, and 498 min (445-610 min) for sleep, respectively. Conclusions The 24-hour movement behaviors of primary and middle school students are closely associated with obesity-related indicators. In the optimal time combinations proposed in this study, the durations of MVPA and SLP are generally consistent with current guidelines, while specific recommended ranges for sleep and LPA are supplemented, which may provide a scientific basis for optimizing 24-hour movement behaviors and preventing childhood obesity.

Objective To examine the associations of kinesiophobia and exercise self-efficacy with weight status among middle school students in Yinchuan,and to analyze the mediating effect of exercise self-efficacy and the moderating effects of relevant demographic factors, so as to provide evidence for adolescent weight management. Methods A cross-sectional survey was conducted from September to October 2025 among 1 482 students in Grades 7-9 selected using multistage stratified cluster sampling. The Kinesiophobia Causes Scale and the Self-Efficacy for Exercise Scale were administered. Body mass index (BMI) was assessed, and demographic characteristics and dietary behaviours were collected. Correlation analysis, multivariable linear regression, and bootstrap mediation and moderation analyses with 5 000 resamples were performed. Results Kinesiophobia was positively associated with BMI (β=0.132, P<0.001). Exercise self-efficacy showed a partial mediating effect on this association, with an indirect effect of 0.039, accounting for 22.8% of the total effect (95%CI: 0.023-0.060). Sex moderated the association between exercise self-efficacy and BMI (β=-0.082, P=0.013), with a stronger negative association among girls. Parental educational attainment moderated the association between kinesiophobia and exercise self-efficacy (β=-0.105, P=0.004), with a stronger negative association among students whose parents' highest educational attainment was below senior high school. Age, residence place, and only-child status showed no significant moderating effects (P>0.05). Conclusions Kinesiophobia is directly associated with BMI and indirectly associated with BMI through exercise self-efficacy. Sex and parental educational attainment moderate these pathways.

Objective To compare the effects of fish oil-based versus soybean oil-based lipid emulsions on head circumference growth and brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) measures in preterm and/or very low birth weight infants, so as to provide evidence for clinical practice. Methods Relevant randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and cohort studies published from database inception to May 2025 were retrieved through PubMed, Embase, the Cochrane Library, Web of Science, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), and Wanfang Data. Two reviewers independently screened the literature, extracted data, and assessed study quality. Meta-analyses were performed using RevMan 5.3. Results Nine studies (4 RCTs and 5 cohort studies) were included, involving a total of 1 451 infants. The meta-analysis of two MRI studies showed that, compared with the soybean oil-based lipid emulsion group, the fish oil-containing lipid emulsion group had greater total brain volume (MD=24.61cm³, 95%CI: 6.19-43.02, P=0.009) and brainstem volume (MD=0.70cm³, 95%CI: 0.34-1.06, P<0.001). No statistically significant between-group difference was observed in cerebellar volume (P>0.05). The pooled results of eight studies showed no statistically significant difference in head circumference Z score (HCZ) between the two groups (P>0.05). Conclusions Compared with soybean oil-based lipid emulsions, fish oil-containing lipid emulsions did not significantly improve HCZ in preterm and/or very-low-birth-weight infants. Limited MRI evidence suggested that their use might be associated with greater total brain and brainstem volumes. Given that the MRI analyses included only two studies, with limited sample sizes and heterogeneous comparator formulations, these findings require confirmation in larger, high-quality studies with more homogeneous comparator formulations.

Child growth and development are core indicators of individual health and population nutritional status, and growth standards serve as the key basis for translating anthropometric measurements into clinical decision. Currently, growth standards can be broadly classified into reference standards, which describe the growth status of specific populations, and prescriptive standards, which define ideal health conditions. Their construction methods have also undergone a statistical evolution from simple normal distribution assumptions to the LMS method and the generalized additive models for location, scale, and shape (GAMLSS). Although international standards such as those developed by the World Health Organization (WHO), INTERGROWTH-21st, and Fenton have been widely adopted worldwide, the application of a single standard remains controversial and may carry a risk of misclassification because of differences in racial genetics,geographic environment, and socioeconomic conditions. In China, although the latest Growth Standards for Children Under 7 Years of Age has been implemented, regional disparities in growth levels continue to pose challenges to accurate assessment. Therefore, this paper reviews the classification of growth standards, the evolution of statistical methodologies, the characteristics of major international standards, and the current development of domestic standards in China, aiming to provide a theoretical basis for clinicians to select appropriate assessment tools in complex settings and for the future development of more precise and individualized growth models.

Hyperuricemia (HUA) and metabolic syndrome (MetS) in children are increasingly recognized as important concerns in pediatric endocrinology and metabolism. The two conditions frequently coexist and may reinforce each other, thereby increasing cardiometabolic risk during childhood and later life. This review summarizes the epidemiological characteristics, shared pathophysiological mechanisms, clinical associations, and treatment advances of pediatric HUA and MetS, in order to provide a theoretical basis and practical reference for the early identification of high-risk children and comprehensive management centered on lifestyle interventions and pharmacological therapy.

Overweight and obesity among children and adolescents have become major public health concerns. Twenty-four-hour movement behaviors, including physical activity, sedentary behavior, and sleep, are key factors influencing weight status. This review summarizes evidence on the independent and combined associations of these behaviors with overweight and obesity and discusses potential influencing factors. Meeting recommended levels of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity is generally associated with more favorable adiposity outcomes, whereas excessive recreational screen time and insufficient sleep are associated with a higher risk of overweight and obesity. Co-occurrence of multiple unhealthy behaviors may further increase risk. These associations may also be influenced by genetic factors and pubertal development, the built environment, family and peer environments, mental health, dietary quality, and eating behaviors. Obesity prevention and control among children and adolescents should therefore shift from interventions targeting a single behavior to the coordinated optimization of physical activity, sedentary behavior, and sleep. Age-specific, feasible, and comprehensive measures should be implemented across family, school, and communities.